pbl教學教學案例
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pbl教學教學案例范文第1篇
一案例教學法在當代高等教育中的意義
（一）案例教學法與傳統教學法的區別
案例教學法由美國哈佛大學首創，該方法是在教師的指導下，根據知識體系的掌握要求，利用案例引導教學活動，組織學生進行學習、研討和探究的一種教學方法[2]。
第一，從教學目的來說，傳統教學重在理論知識的傳授，其缺點是缺乏理論聯系實際的結合點，容易造成理論脫離實際的弊病。而案例教學重在實際問題的解決，其教學案例主要來自科研和生活實踐，具有真實性、完整性、典型性、代表性。通過案例的學習，能掌握隱藏在案例后的完整的知識體系，并在此過程中，訓練學生獨立分析問題和解決問題的能力。
第二，從教學材料和授課方式來說，傳統教學所使用的教學材料一般都是具有一定穩定性的教科書，其典型授課方式是以“教師講，學生聽”為主。而案例教學使用的教學材料是獨特的教學案例，并且這些教學案例一般都是隨時代的發展不斷更新。
第三，在傳統的教學中，教師只要教材熟悉、思路清晰、表達清楚，使學生掌握了教師的“真理”，責任就算盡到了。而在案例教學中，教師雖然可能比學生懂得多，但教師的角色并不是權威，應定位為案例教學的設計者、引導者、組織者和案例討論的參與者。
第四，從學生的角色和責任來說，在傳統教學中，學生處于消極、被動和受支配地位。其角色是認真的聽講者和知識的接受者。而在案例教學中，不僅強調教師的“教”（引導），更強調學生的“學”（自主學習和研討），以學生為中心，學生在整個教學活動中處于主導地位。
（二）案例教學法的重要意義
案例教學法有如下作用和意義：通過真實性的案例，能很好地解決理論與實際脫節的矛盾，便于理論聯系實際；通過師生角色的轉變，有助于調動師生教與學的積極性；在解決現實案例的過程中，首先需要學生根據案例的需要，不斷地收集、分析、學習和處理各種知識和信息，從而有助于培養學生的信息收集、學習和處理能力；在解決現實案例的過程中，還需要學生運用所學的知識體系解決現實問題，從而有助于提高學生分析問題和解決問題的能力；解決問題的途徑并非唯一，學生在案例分析過程中，可以站在不同的立場、多角度地分析和解決問題，從而有助于培養學生的創新能力。
PBL（Problem-Based Learning）即“基于問題的學習”，由加拿大的McMaster大學首創[3]。該方法以問題為核心，其核心思想有兩個：一是將問題作為學習和整合新知識的起點，以問題為載體，使學生在解決問題的過程中學到必要的知識；二是不單純只為獲得知識，在獲得知識的同時，強調問題的解決。其教學的主要形式是：以學生為中心，在教師的引導下，以小組為單位圍繞著一個個的問題進行討論和學習。
PBL教學與案例教學有極強的互補性。在案例教學中，一個案例就是一個實際情境的描述，在這個情境中，往往包含著多個疑難問題。換句話說，要解決一個代表現實課題的真實性案例，需要將其分解成許多個問題，通過每個問題的解決，最終解決整個案例。同時，在解決問題的過程中掌握每個問題背后所包含的知識，所有知識的集合則構成了案例背后隱藏的知識體系。也就是說，在進行案例教學的過程中，需要用到“基于問題的教學”；而“基于問題的教學”中的“問題”，并不是隨意設置的，需要以案例解決的路線為指引進行設置。
三案例教學法和PBL教學法的實踐探索
（一）課程平臺
我們以生物信息學為課程平臺。生物信息學是用數理和信息科學的觀點、理論和方法去研究生命現象、組織和分析呈現指數增長的生物數據的一門學科[4]。它主要包括兩重含義：一是對海量數據的收集、整理與服務，即管理好這些數據；二是從中發現新的規律，即利用好這些數據。它是生命科學領域里一門極為重要的工具課程，可整合和串聯各門主干課程。
（二）具體實施
1分組
對班級學生進行分組，分組的依據主要是每個學生能力的高低，將能力互補的學生分在一個學習小組中，每組控制在4-5人左右。
2提出教學目標，布置真實性任務（案例）
案例教學法中案例的選擇并非隨意拿來，而是要根據教學內容和教學對象的不同，精心選擇，精心設汁。其一，所選案例要貼切、恰當，能全面反映教學內容。其二，所選案例要生動，具有吸引力，這樣才能調動學生的積極性，吸引學生積極參與、積極思考。其三，所選案例要難易適度，充分考慮到學生的個體差異，盡量選擇和設計出所有學生都可理解接受的案例。基于上述三點，我們選擇了“某個新基因的發現與鑒定”這一真實性科研課題作為案例。
3以案例完成的步驟為主線，設置相應的問題集
教師在選擇好案例后要花一定時間仔細研讀思考，對下列問題一定要成竹在胸：選用此案例主要想解決什么問題？案例將可能涉及哪些方面的知識？通過研讀思考、翻閱教材和資料，將相關信息整理出來，歸納成問題集，作為學生解決案例的線索和依據。按照這個原則，我們設置了以下11個問題，構成問題集：（1）生物數據庫是如何架構的，對于互聯網上常見的生物數據庫，該如何識別與理解？（2）如何通過國際上的生物數據庫檢索系統，對數據庫內的生物分子數據進行使用？（3）如何通過各種常見的雙序列比對軟件完成對生物分子的兩兩比對？（4）如何通過各種常見的多序列比對軟件完成對生物分子的多重比對？（5）如何利用EST數據庫獲得基因重疊群？（6）如何完成新基因的拼接獲得？（7）如何完成所得基因的理化性質分析？（8）如何完成所得基因的啟動區域分析？（9）如何完成所得基因的CDS區域分析？（10）如何完成新基因的人工翻譯？（11）如何完成所得蛋白質的結構與功能分析？
4定期討論
定期安排學生集中討論。每次討論主要完成兩方面工作：一是對問題解決和案例完成進展情況進行報告，二是對所遇到的難點進行互相交流。教師全程參與，對疑難點做出提示和建議。
5成果匯報
案例完成后，進行集中匯報。讓學生對期間所做的工作、獲得的結果進行匯報。
6教師評價、反饋
由指導教師對案例完成過程及結果進行點評，對學生掌握知識的程度及學生的科研、應用能力進行評價，并提出可進一步提高的方向。
7延伸階段
鑒于生物信息學都是在臨近畢業時進行教學，對于有興趣的學生，可以將案例擴展成畢業設計，進行模塊化分流教學。
（三）案例教學法與PBL教學法的實施效果
1激發了學生的學習興趣，提高了教學質量
學習是一種滿足人類基本需要的方式，興趣則是最好的老師。案例教學法與PBL教學法的實施，大大轉變了師生的角色和觀念。使教師認識到學生作為主體參與教學的重要性，逐漸從知識論轉向主體論，從知識的傳授者、教學的組織領導者轉變成為學習過程中的咨詢者、引導者和伙伴；樹立了“以學生為中心”的教育理念，確立了學生全面發展、能力本位的價值取向。同時，真正落實了學生在教學活動中的主體地位，改變了他們以往個體式、接受式、知識學習導向的學習方式，形成了合作式、探究式、能力培養導向的學習方式，讓每一位學生積極主動地參與了學習過程。在此過程中，學生的學習興趣大大增強，教學效果十分良好，教學質量有了明顯的提升。
2促進了對學生能力的培養
古人云，“授之以魚不如授之以漁。”葉圣陶先生也認為，“教是為了不教。”究其根本，實際上都在強調學校應該教會學生自主學習，這樣才能在知識的不斷更新中挺立潮頭，永遠立于不敗之地。通過案例教學法和PBL教學法的實施，我們確立了以教師為引導、學生為主體的教學模式。通過真實性很強的案例與相匹配的問題集，把知識獲取方式由灌輸式變為探究式，大大提升了學習效果。并且在此過程中，極大地提高了學生分析問題、解決問題的能力，增強了學生的創新精神。
參考文獻
[1]趙姝淳.對高校創新性人才培養的思考[J].國家教育行政學院學報，2007（3）：64-67.
[2]王世民.淺議案例教學法[J].遼寧教育行政學院學報， 2006 （6）：91-92.
pbl教學教學案例范文第2篇
筆者在《金融法》課堂教學中采用PBL教學法組織案例討論，選擇一些涉及理論上有爭議、社會上有關注或者學生中有困惑的典型案例，通過細致編排內容，精心選擇設問，靈活運用于課堂教學中。通過實際操作發現，該方法較好的提高了學生運用法律知識分析問題解決問題的能力，并初步拓展了學生的學術視野和人文關懷。
1. 案例準備
選取適當的案例是成功組織案例教學的關鍵。一般法學專業本科階段，《金融法》多在第三學年開設，學生已經修完法學基礎課程，有了一定的部門法學習經驗。因此，篩選的案例一般要求有深度、有難度，內涵層次豐富，外延真實可信。我們一般依照如下幾點進行。
其次，真實性。我國目前仍尚認判例可以作為法的淵源，但我國最高法院對某些具體案件的司法解釋與之有類似的作用。所以選取時下發生過的有著鮮明時代特征的案例，有利于學生從書本知識到社會實踐的過渡。
再次，爭議性。要求案件在大部分學生的知識范疇內，有各抒己見、分析探討的層次和空間。法律爭議在目前我國法制完善過程中仍不同程度的存在。通過對爭議的討論，可以使得學生進一步深入分析，厘清相關法律范疇的界定和判斷。
2. 問題設置
這是教師駕馭整個案例教學過程的關鍵。案例選定后，教師要將其主要情景和事實系統歸納整理，發掘出案例所涉及的知識、理論、觀點及最新的理論動向。以此為切入點，將整個案例有機分為幾個情景段落。一般地，我們將案例分成案例陳述、實際結案情況及法律理論運用和拓展3個部分。
2～4個主要的討論問題圍繞案例設計，一般放在第一個情景段落案例陳述之后，指向實際結案情況。使學生思考、討論時有的放矢，不偏離主題。并適當預留幾個可以由學生提出問題的點，鼓勵學生自己從案例中發現，以期通過增強學生的參與程度，鍛煉其發現疑問、提煉觀點、設置問題以及分析解決的能力，并在一定程度上逐步鍛煉學生在學科上的質疑、探索的精神。
在第二個情景段落，也就是實際結案情況提出后，可設置爭議性問題，交由學生分組討論。針對不同的案例，可選取大組或小組的不同分組方式進行安排。大組討論，即分為兩大組，適用于相對容易區分為正反兩種主要觀點的問題。小組討論，即將分為3個以上的小組，適用于有超過兩種以上主要觀點的問題。分組后給學生1周左右的時間進行準備，一般是查找資料、組內討論等，最終形成本組觀點。
做為第三情景段落的法律理論運用和拓展，重點在于從案例討論回歸法律理論。指導學生深入分析具體法律知識的切入點，深刻領會相關法律理論的應用過程。并努力指引學生向更加深入的層次探索，拓展一定的法律學術思維和視野。
3. 分析討論
這是整個PBL教學法在《金融法》案例教學過程中最主要的階段。占用課時相對較長，若教師控制不當，則可能導致“冷場”或者“鬧場”等極端情況的出現。只有討論熱烈而有條不紊才能達到教學目的，使學生有所得。我們一般按照學生演講、課堂討論和教師點評等環節進行。
在學生演講中，要求每組選擇代表一名表達本組成員的觀點，其他成員可以補充，一般要求時間控制在3分鐘以內。教師和其他同學可在演講結束后進行提問。另外，教師可以就發言者本身的講話過程、表情及動作等進行簡短的穿插點評，一方面可以指導學生鍛煉當眾講話的能力，另一方面可以營造更好的活躍的課堂氛圍，有益于討論生動、熱烈展開。
課堂討論，一般針對不同的案例或分組方式具體安排。小組討論中，一般順接各組學生演講，而其他組成員則可針對演講中所表達的觀點或提出的問題隨時進行反駁、詰問。大組討論中，可參照一般辯論形式，每組要求至少4名成員代表發言。隨后與小組討論安排大致相同。在此環節，教師要引導學生圍繞所提出的問題進行發言，應鼓勵學生言之有據地表達自己的觀點，可以進行有理有節的辯論。同時，也要掌控討論的氣氛和節奏，始終保持熱烈而不激烈的氣氛，避免個人攻擊等情況出現。指導同學充分發現和運用團隊的優勢，在各組集體參與下充分交流信息和碰撞思維，引導學生朝著學術素養塑造方向，將討論達到一定的深度廣度。
教師點評，是PBL教學法案例教學的總結階段。在討論完成后，學生能收獲多少，與此階段密切相關。教師要對案例的討論情況進行點評和小結，引導學生從討論回歸書本，從實際回歸理論，進一步強化相關法律知識的理解和掌握，為日后學生熟練運用理論解決實際問題打下良好基礎，一步步打造學生的知識儲備和實踐能力。
4. 優勢
pbl教學教學案例范文第3篇
基于問題的學習（Problem－Based Learning，簡稱PBL，也稱作問題式學習）教學法是指以問題為基礎、學生為中心、教師為引導的小組討論和學生自學的教學方式。應用到法醫臨床學教學，PBL教學法可優化為以“案件”為基礎、以學生為中心、以教師為引導的教學模式。在法醫臨床學教學中推行PBL教學法，是提高其教學質量、培養合格法醫人才的一個重要手段。
一、PBL教學法在法醫臨床學教學中的實施過程
經典PBL的實施包含八個步驟［1］：①確定不熟悉的、難以解釋的詞匯和語句，尋求其他小組能提供的解釋。②學生積極提出自己的想法，解釋所討論的問題。③借鑒已有的知識、經驗和常識，對問題提出所有可能的解釋。④仔細分析所產生的解釋。⑤協作小組共同協作形成一系列具體的、可實現的、綜合的和恰當的學習目標。⑥學生通過各種資源發現有關學習目標的資源。⑦小組間共享各自的研究成果并融合成綜合性的解釋。⑧討論經驗。
在法醫臨床學教學中，具體過程如下：①提出問題：根據教學大綱、教學計劃及教學內容，選擇具有代表性的案例，針對本次課的重點和難點，設計問題；②針對提出的問題，要求每個學生利用課余時間，通過預習教材、查閱相關文獻資料，尋求答案；③小組討論：以小組為單位進行討論交流。由授課教師指導，對討論結果予以肯定；④回顧總結：最后教師對該次教學內容加以歸納，并可對某些學生共同感興趣的問題作進一步深入講解，擴展學生知識面。例如，在講授眼損傷章節時，選擇眼損傷典型案例。被鑒定人張某，男，48歲，2010年2月21日與他人發生糾紛，被對方用拳頭擊傷左眼部。2010年2月21日某醫院住院病歷記載：因“頭面部、背部被毆擊傷疼痛，左眼視物不清1小時”入院。體檢：神清，精神可，生命體征平穩，一般情況可。頭頸部、胸腹部、四肢、脊柱無異常，腎區無叩擊痛。專科情況：視力右眼0.5，左眼手動/30cm，紅綠光可見。左眼瞼腫脹，皮下瘀血，球結膜下廣泛性出血，角膜透明，前房水清，正常深淺，瞳孔圓，反射存在，晶狀體透明，玻璃體混濁，下方可見團塊狀黑影。眼底模糊，視不清，眼壓Tn。右瞳孔等大等圓約3mm大小，光敏，鼻部腫脹。CT掃描示：左眼眶軟組織挫傷，雙側眼球未見明顯異常。初步診斷：左眼玻璃體積血；左眼視網膜震蕩傷。入院后給予擴血管，促進玻璃體積血吸收等治療。出院時患者仍訴左眼視物不清，查左眼視力0.04，不能矯正，球結膜無充血，角膜透明，前房正常，瞳孔圓，光反射存在，晶體透明，玻璃體較混，無積血，眼底視網膜無出血，視無水腫，境界清，黃斑中心反光不清。鑒定事項：對張某進行損傷程度鑒定。法醫檢驗：2010年9月18日活體檢查：一般情況好。眼科專科檢查：右眼視力1.0，左眼0.1（矯正不能提高）。角膜（－），晶體周邊部微混，玻璃體（－），左眼眼底黃斑中心凹反光欠清，視網膜平伏，未見出血和水腫。眼壓：左眼17mmHg，右眼16mmHg。視覺電生理檢查報告提示：左眼視網膜功能降低；左眼視路功能降低。眼底造影：左眼可見熒光滲漏。
在完整的資料顯示完后，提出問題：①能認定張某的哪些損傷？②主觀檢查法得出的張某左眼視力障礙有無損傷的基礎？③張某左眼視力降低與外傷之間有無因果關系？④張某的損傷程度如何判定？⑤何為視網膜挫傷，與視網膜震蕩如何鑒別？然后我們推薦或提供部分相關文獻、資料，要求學生查找資料并學習和利用資料，針對上述問題展開充分討論。在與同學互動討論的過程中，教師要引導學生回顧損傷程度鑒定原則，損傷因果關系判定的方法，偽裝視力低下的鑒別方法等。要求學生以法醫鑒定人的角色對此案進行鑒定，啟發學生通過對案件資料的全面分析，認定張某的損傷為左眼視網膜挫傷，損傷程度為輕傷。通過以此案例為基礎的討論式學習，將知識點融匯于案例中，不但形象生動地學習了眼損傷的相關知識，而且培養了學生提出問題、分析問題和解決問題的能力，使理論知識和法醫學實踐有機的結合起來，在理論學習中提高法醫學實際檢案能力，收到了良好的教學效果。
二、效果及體會
筆者認為PBL教學法具有以下優點：①有利于激發學生學習興趣，發揮學生學習的主動性，提升學生的自學能力；②有利于學生理解新知識，鞏固舊知識。教師在設計問題時，將各基礎及臨床相關學科知識融入問題中，使學生在理解新知識的同時，又鞏固了原有知識；③有利于培養學生的綜合素質和能力。［2］傳統的教學方法，學生長期習慣被動接受教師傳授的知識，不利于綜合素質的培養。而PBL教學，學生以問題為中心進行自學，這樣就可以通過預習材料、文獻檢索、資料歸納和分析、觀點提煉以及人際交往來提高資料收集、人際溝通以及分析問題和解決問題的能力，可以通過討論來提高邏輯思維能力，可以通過課堂闡述、相互點評來提高語言表達能力。同時在教學中發現了一些問題與不足：①個別學生有消極參與的情緒，依賴教師課后總結而不積極參與討論，或僅抓住表面現象而忽視對問題的深入思考；②資料信息收集簡單。有的學生為了快速完成任務，不進行認真仔細收集；③花費時間太多。［3］
綜上所述，通過以案例分析為基礎的教學，在教學中模擬法醫的實際工作，提出問題，解決問題，寓理論知識于實際案例中，能夠調動學生的學習主動性，挖掘他們的學習潛能，培養他們分析問題、解決問題以及案件分析能力，促進學生綜合素質的提高，從而真正達到提升法醫臨床教學質量的目的。所以，案例教學法是理論聯系實際，提高學生專業素質的一個好的教學方法，［4］也是一個值得廣泛推廣的教學方法。
參考文獻
1 Yiou R, Goaenogh D. Applying Problem―based learning to the teaching of anatomy：the example of Harvard Medical School［J］. Surg Radiol Anat，2006（2）：189
2 王 荃、李自良、劉 彥.口腔頜面外科學PBL教學實踐與研究［J］.吉林醫學，2010（24）：4223～4224
pbl教學教學案例范文第4篇
本文共分五個部分，第一部分和第五部分分別為介紹與總結，中間三個部分為本文核心，分別展開廣告英語在詞匯﹑句法﹑篇章三個層面的分析。本文的結論均來自于對語料庫的分析。整個研究從數據出發，由數據驅動，由此進行語言學上的分析與概括。
本文作者衷心希望此論文的分析結果能給英語廣告的寫作者以及廣告英語的學習者提供幫助。
關鍵詞:廣告英語，詞匯，句法，篇章，相同點，不同點
ANANALYSISOFLANGUAGEFEATURESINENGLISHADVERTISEMENTS
Abstract
ThispaperpresentsananalyticalstudyofthelanguagefeaturesofEnglishadvertisementsatlexical,syntacticanddiscourselevels.Inordertoconductadata-drivenstudy,theauthorbuildsacorpusof60Englishadvertisements.Itishopedthatthroughthedetailedsurveyofthreetypesofadvertisements:namely,dailyconsumergoodsads,technicalequipmentads,serviceads,similaritiesanddifferencesinadvertisinglanguagefeaturescanbesummarizedandpossiblereasonswillbegiveninthelightofthemeaning,andfunctionoflanguage.
Thispaperwillbepresentedinfiveparts.Thefirstpartistheintroductionandthelastconclusion.Thefocusofthepaperislaidonthethreemiddlepartswhichrespectivelyanalyzelanguagefeaturesatlexical,syntacticanddiscourselevels.Theconclusionofthispaperisdrawnfromthedataanalysis.Intheanalysis,examplesfromthecorpuswillbegiven;figures,tablesandgraphswillalsobeofferedtomakethepaperunderstandableandpersuasive.
ItishopedthatthestudycanshedlightonthelanguagefeaturesofadvertisementsandalsoprovidehelptocopywritersandadvertisingEnglishlearners.
KEYWORDS:EnglishAdvertisements,Lexical,Syntactic,Discourse,
Similarities,Differences
Contents
1.Introduction………………………………………………………………1
1.1Rationaleofthestudy……………………………………………………...1
1.2Definitionofadvertising…………………………………………………...1
1.3Focusofthepresentstudy…………………………………………………1
1.4Sourcesofdata…………………………………………………………….2
2.Lexicalfeatures……………………………………………………………2
2.1Classificationofadvertisinganditsaudience……………………………..2
2.2Similaritiesatthelexicallevel…………………………………………….3
2.2.1Fewverbsareused………………………………………………………...3
2.2.2Useofemotivewords……………………………………………………..4
2.2.3Makepunandalliteration………………………………………………….4
2.2.4Useofweaselwords……………………………………………………….5
2.3Differencesatthelexicallevel…………………………………………….6
2.3.1Genderidentityinadvertisements………………………………………….6
2.3.2SelectionofAdjectives……………………………………………………7
2.3.3Compoundwords………………………………………………………….8
2.3.4Useofpronouns……………………………………………………………8
3.Syntacticalfeatures………………………………………………………9
3.1Similarities…………………………………………………………………9
3.2Differences…………………………………………………………………10
3.2.1Headlines…………………………………………………………………..10
3.2.2Comparisonofheadlinesofdifferenttypesofads………………………...11
4.Discoursefeatures...………………………………………………………..12
4.1Bodycopyofadvertisements……………………………………………...12
4.2Differencesinbodycopy…………………………………………….12
5.Conclusion…………………………………………………………………14
Acknowledgement
SincerethanksgotoDr.WeiNaixingforhisinsightfulguidanceandearnesthelpallthroughthesearching,analysisandpaper-writingstages.
TheauthoralsowantstoextendherthankstoMs.LindaFrostwhohasgivenmuchhelpindatacollecting.
[1]Bolinger,Dwight&Sears,DonaldA.AspectsofLanguagethirdedition
NewYork:HarcourtBraceJovanovich1981
[2]Bovee,CourtlandL.&Arens,WilliamF.ContemporaryAdvertisingforthedition
Homewood,IL:Irwin1992
[3]Gove,PhilipBabcockWebster’sThirdNewInternationalDictionary
Springfield,Mass.:G.&C.MerriamCo.1976
[4]Gregory,MichaelLanguageVarietiesandTheirSocialContexts
London:Routledge&KeganPaulLtd.1981
[5]Jefkins,FrankWilliamAdvertisingPhiladelphia,PA:MacdonaldandEvans1985
[6]O’Donnell,W.R.&Todd,LoretoVarietyinContemporaryEnglish
London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin(Publishers)Ltd.1985
[7]Roberts,WilliamH.&Turgeon,GregoireAboutLanguagesecondediton
Boston:HoughtonMifflinCo.1989
[8]Vestergaard,Torben&Schrder,KimThelanguageofAdvertising
Oxford[Oxfordshire];NewYork,NY,USA:B.Blackwell1985
[9]方薇《現代英語廣告教程》南京大學出版社1997
[10]崔剛，韓寶成，李營，《廣告英語》北京理工大學出版社1993
1.Introduction
1.1Rationaleofthestudy
Weliveinaworldofadvertising.Aspotentialconsumers,weareendlesslybombardedwithallkindsofproductorserviceinformationfromvariousmediaincludingnewspapers,magazines,television,radio,postersandInternet,etc.Advertisingprovidesavaluableservicetosocietyanditsmembers,becauseitdefinesforconsumersthemeaningandtheroleofproducts,services,andinstitutions.Itindicatesthedifferencethatexistsbetweenbrandsofproductsandalternativeservices,aswellasthedistinguishingcharacteristicsofcompaniesandinstitutions.Advertisingalsotellstheconsumerwhataspecificproduct,brandorserviceshoulddowhenitisusedandthushelpshimorhertounderstandandevaluateexperiencewiththeproductsandservicesthatheorsheuses.Ontheotherhand,bymakingpeopleawareofproducts,serviceandideas,advertisingpromotessalesandprofits.Finally,binedwithallthesecommunicational,marketingandsocialfunctions.Advertisingbecomesindispensableinthemodernworld.
Naturally,advertisementsinEnglishhavebecomeanimportantmeansofcommunicatingideas,demonstratingavarietyoflinguisticfeaturesofitsown.Thepresentstudyattemptstoexaminethesefeaturesatthelexical,syntacticanddiscourselevels,inthehopeofbringingthemtolightand,thereby,offeringhelptoadvertisementwritersandlanguagelearners.
1.2Definitionofadvertising
AccordingtotheDefinitionCommitteeofAmericanMarketingAssociation(方薇,1997:2)
,advertisingisdefinedasfollows:
Advertisingisthenonpersonalcommunicationofinformationusuallypaidforandusuallypersuasiveinnatureaboutproducts,servicesorideasbyidentifiedsponsorsthroughthevariousmedia.
1.3Focusofthepresentstudy
Usually,advertisingcommunicatesinformationinthreetypes:audio,visual,andlanguage.Itisamorecommoncasethatanadvertisementisamixtureofthethree.Inradioadvertisements,musicisalwaysaccompaniedbylanguage;onTVandmotionpictures,musicandlanguageillustrationaremixedwitheachother.Inmagazinesandnewspapers,advertisementsareacombinationofpicturesandlanguageofwritteninformation.Althoughmusicandpicturescanprovidesomehints,orcreateakindofatmosphere,theinformationabouttheproductislimited.Evenworse,itmayleadtomisunderstanding.Thus,wemaysaythatlanguageinawayprovidesmoreexact,detailedanddependableinformationwhereasmusicandpicturesonlyactasasupplementarymeansinadvertising.Advertisinglanguage,playingaroleofcommunicationandpersuasion,hasdevelopeditsownfeatures.
ThispaperwillfocusonthelanguagefeaturesofEnglishadvertisementsatlexical,syntacticanddiscourselevels.Itishoped,byacontrastivestudyofadvertisementsonthreetypesofproducts(dailyconsumergoods,technicalequipmentandservice),similaritiesanddifferencesofthethreetypesofadvertisementswillbesummarizedandpossiblereasonswillbegiveninthelightofthemeaning,andfunctionoflanguage.
1.4Sourcesofdata
AlltheadvertisementsstudiedinthispaperaretakenfromEnglishmagazines.TheyarechosenfromTime,PeopleandNewsweek(issuesfrom1999-2000),becausethesethreemagazineshaveahugecirculation,coveringallkindsofaudience.Almostallkindsofadvertisementscanbefoundinthesemagazines.Inordertogetvaluableinformationforthestudy,acorpusof60advertisementswasbuilt,whichconsistsof20dailyconsumergoodsads,20technicalequipmentads,and20serviceads.Conclusionswillbedrawnthroughquantitativeandqualitativestudiesofthedata.
2LexicalFeatures
2.1Classificationofadvertisinganditsaudience
Generallyspeaking,advertisementscanbedividedintotwotypes:publicrelationadsandcommercialads.Theformertriestoadvocatereputationforasocialgroup,mercialadsaremuchmorepresentedthroughmassmediaforthereasonthatmanufacturersandcompaniesarewillingtospendalargesumofmoneytomakeacertainproductknownortoboosttheimageofacertainbrand.Insomecases,competitors,likeCoca-colaandPerpsi,mercialadvertisingcanalsobedividedaccordingtothetargetaudienceintotwogroups:consumeradvertisingandbusinessadvertising.Mostoftheadsinthemassmediaareconsumeradvertisements.Theyaretypicallydirectedatconsumers.Bycontrast,businessadvertisingtendstobeconcentratedinspecializedbusinesspublications,professionaljournals,tradeshowstargetingatacertaingroupofpeopleinvolvedinsomebusiness.Sinceconsumeradvertisingismostaccessibletocommonpeople,thepresentstudyonwillfocusonconsumeradvertising.Theclassificationofadvertisingisclearlyshowninthefollowinggraph
Graph1Classificationofadvertisements
PublicadsDailyconsumergoodsads
AdvertisingConsumeradsTechnicalequipmentads
Commercialads
BusinessadsServiceads
Theboldpartsshowthescopeofadvertisementswestudy.Dailyconsumergoodsarenecessitiesofdailylife,suchasfood,detergent,hygiene,etc.Technicalequipmentistechnicaltoysandelectricequipmentsuchascamera,vehicle,hi-fi,etc.Servicecoversbank,insurance,fund,etc.
Actually,advertisingworkseffectivelysomeofthetimeanddoesn’tworkothertimes.Thesinglecrucialreasonthatadvertisingdoesnotworkisthatinspecificinstancestheinformationitconveysneverreachestheconsumeratall,orisjudgedbytheconsumertobeeitherredundant,meaningless,orirrelevant.Forexample,amotorbikeadvertisementwillprobablybeinvisibletohousewivesonthelookoutfornewcutlery.Socialstatusandindividualinterestdecidethatconsumergoodsadsaremainlytargetingatwomenwhiletechnicalequipmentadsarelargelyaimingatmen.Theamountofsharedknowledgebetweentheadvertiserandtheaudiencetogetherwiththethinkinghabitoftheaudiencedirectlyinfluencestheadvertisinglanguage.Sinceproductsandaudiencechangeineveryadvertisementinordertoachievehighadvertisingeffectiveness,languageuseddiffersindifferenttypesofadvertisements.Thus,inthispaperwediscussnotonlythesimilaritiesoflanguagesharedbyalltypesofadvertisementsbutalsodifferencesoflanguageusedindifferentkindsofadvertisements.
2.2Similaritiesatthelexicallevel
Inordertomaketheinformationaccessibletoaudienceeffectively,thechoiceofwordsinadvertisingisverycautiousandskillful.Theaimoftheadvertiserisquitespecific.Hewishestocapturetheattentionofthemembersofamassaudienceandbymeansofimpressivewordstopersuadethemtobuyaproductorbehaveinaparticularway,suchasgoingtoHawaiiforalltheirholidayneeds.Bothlinguisticandpsychologicalaspectsaretakenintoconsiderationinthechoiceofwords.Sharingthesamepurposeofadvertising－tofamiliarizeorremindconsumersofthebenefitsofparticularproductsinthehopeofincreasingsales,thetechniquesusedatthelexicallevelbyadvertisersdonotvarymarkedly.Thefollowingpointsaresomeprominentsimilarities.
2.2.1Fewverbsareused
G.N.Leech,Englishlinguist,lists20mostusedverbsinhisEnglishInAdvertising:LinguisticstudyofAdvertisingInGreatBritain(方薇,1997:20).Theyare:make,get,give,have,see,buy,come,go,know,keep,look,need,love,use,feel,like,choose,take,start,taste.
Alltheseverbslistedabovearealsopopularinthecorpuswebuilt.
Youwilloftenreadsuchsentencesinanadvertisement:
Buyx.Useit.Wemake…Xwillgiveyouwhatyouneed.You’lllovex.Getx.Foxexample:
We’llmakethisquick.(HertzCarReturn)
Getgreatcoveragethat’ssoweightlessandwater-fresh.(ALMAY)
Allyouneedisatasteforadventure.(MillstoneCoffee)
You’llloveitevenmorewiththe2.1megapixelC-2000ZOOM.(OlympusCamera)
Don’thavemuchofapersonality?Buyone.(HondaMotor)
…
AllthesefrequentlyusedverbsaremonosyllabicandmostofthemhaveAnglo-SaxonoriginthatisthecommoncoreofEnglishvocabulary.LinguisticstudyshowsEnglishnativespeakerstendtousewordsofAnglo-Saxonorigin,becausenativewordshavecomparablystablemeaning.Inadvertising,thesesimplewordscanwintheconsumersbytheirexact,effectiveexpressionandakindofcloseness.Etymologicalstudiesshowthatthe20verbslistedbefore,exceptuseandtastewhicharefromancientFrench,allareAnglo-Saxonorigin.Eventhetwowords,useandtastehavelongbecomeindispensablelexicalitemsinthestockofcommoncorevocabularyoftheEnglishpeople,developingtheirstablemeaningandusage.
2.2.2Useofemotivewords
Aclosescrutinyofrecentadvertisementssuggeststhatthesoft-selltechniqueisnowpopular.Bysoft-selltechniquewemeantheonethatfavorsamoreemotiveandlessdirectiveapproachtopromoteaproduct,mainlyfocusingonthebuildingofbrandimage.Asaresult,emotivewords,mostofwhicharepleasantadjectives,aregreatlyencouragedtouse.
Datafromthecorpusshowsthatthemostfrequentlyusedadjectivesareasfollows:
new,good/better/best,fresh,free,delicious,sure,full,clean,wonderful,special,crisp,real,fine,great,safe,andrich.
Theseadjectiveshelptobuildapleasantpictureinreaders’mindsandmanagetocreateabeliefinthepotentialconsumer:IfIbuythisproductorifIchoosethisservice,Iwillleadabetterlife.Inaddition,comparativesandsuperlativesoccurtohighlighttheadvantageofacertainproductorservice.Forexample:
Nothingcomesclosertohome.(VegetableandChickenPastaBake)
ThinkLysolisthebestdisinfectingspray.(DisinfectingSpray)
Theworld’scoolestCDsaren’tmadeinNewYork,LondonorL.A.Theyaremadeinmyapartment.(PhilipsCDRecorder)
TheCompaqArmadafamilyislighter,withnewroundededgesforeasierpacking.(Compaq)
…
2.2.3Makepunandalliteration
PunisanamusinguseofawordorphrasethathastwomeaningswhichiscalledPolysemyorofwordswiththesamesoundbutdifferentmeaningswhichiscalledHomonymy.Pun,thegameofwords,willleaveadeepimpressiononreadersbyitsreadability,wit,andhumor.However,tomakeasuccessfulandimpressivepunisnoteasy.Exceptforitsownmeaning,thewordusedasapunisusuallycloselyrelatedtothecharacteristicsofacertainproductorthebrandnameoftheproduct.Suchcoincidencedoesn’toccuroften.Herewepresentseveralclassicpun-usedadvertisements.Forexample:
Giveyourhairatouchofspring.
Askformore.(Moreisafamousbrandofcigarette)
Giveyourbusinessthesharpedge.(SharpCorporation)
…
Byusingpun,advertisementswillbeeasilyrememberedbythereaders.Inaddition,filledwithwitandhumor,punshelptheadvertisedproductwinfavorfromreaders.
Alliterationistheuseofwordsthatbeginwiththesamesoundinordertomakeaspecialcommunicativeeffect.Usuallytheyarepleasingtoearsbecauseofthecleverchoiceofthewordbytheadvertiser.Inaddition,therepetitionofthebeginningsoundemphasizesthemeaningtheadvertisementwantstoexpress.Thefollowingareexamplespickedfromthecorpus.
…,everythingyouneedforthatbigbargainbasementspecial.
…,andvitaminEtoleaveskinsoftandsmooth.
Treatyourwearyghostsandgoblinstoawarmbowlofchilland…
…
2.2.4Useofweaselwords
Aweaselwordisdefinedas“awordusedinordertoevadeorretreatfromadirectorforthrightstatementorposition”accordingtoWebsterDictionary(PhilipBabcockGove,1976).Theuseofweaselwordshasbecomeadeviceinadvertising.Weaselwordsmakepeoplehearthingsthataren’tbeingsaid,acceptastruththathaveonlybeenimplied,andbelievethingsthathaveonlybeenimpliedandsuggested.Let’stakealookunderastronglightatseveralfrequentlyusedwords.
Help
OceanSprayCranberryJuiceCocktailhelpsmaintainurinarytracthealth.
Ithelpscontrolthebacteriainthissystem.
Abreakthroughwaytohelpstopwear-out
Helpfinancethevideoequipment.
…
Alltheexamplesshownarefromourcorpus.23%advertisementsofallsamplesusethewordhelp.Thesehelpscanbeomittedbecausetheyhavelosttheiroriginalmeaning:aid,assist.Yet,helpinadvertisingEnglishisneverredundant.Ithasmagicpowerinadvertisers’eyes.
Helpisthegreatqualifier;oncetheadvertisersaysit,hecansayanythingafterit.Helpqualifieseverything.Theaudiencehasneverheardanyonesay,“Thisproductwillkeepyouyoung,”or“Thistoothpastewillpositivelypreventcavitiesforalltime.”Obviously,advertiserscan’tsayanythinglikethat,becausetherearenotanyproductslikethatmade.Butbyaddingthatonelittlewordhelp,infront,theycanusethestrongestlanguagepossibleafterwards.Andthemostfascinatingpartofitisthatthereadersareimmunetotheword.Thereadersliterallydon’thearthewordhelp.Theyonlyknewwhatcomesafterit.Thatisstronglanguage,andlikelytobemuchmoreimportanttothereadersthanthelittlewordatthefront.
Like
It’slikegettingonbarfree.
Cleanslikeawhitetornado.
It’sliketakingatriptoPortugal.
…
Likeisalsoaqualifier,andisusedinmuchthesamewayashelp.Butlikeisalsoacomparativeelement,withaveryspecificpurpose;advertisersuseliketogettheaudiencetostopthinkingaboutsomethingthatisbiggerthanorbetterordifferentfromtheproductwhicharebeingsold.Inotherwords,theycanmaketheaudiencebelievethattheproductismorethanitisbylikeningittosomethingelse.Likehelp,likedoesn’tcatchmuchattention.Howeverbyusingit,almostanythingcanbesaidandpromisedafterwards.
2.3Differencesatthelexicallevel
2.3.1Genderidentityinadvertisements
Whilewefoundquitealotofsimilaritiesinthechoiceofwords,wehavealsofoundsomedelicatedifferencesinthechoiceofwordsinthethreetypesofadvertisementsasclassifiedbefore:dailyconsumergoodsads,technicalequipmentads,andserviceads.
Language,asacommunicativetool,isnotonlytoimpartinformation,tocommunicateideasaboutaproduct,etc.,butalsotoconveyinformationabouttherelationshipbetweentheaddresser(advertisement)andtheaddressee(theaudience).Anintimaterelationshipbetweentheadvertisementandtheaudienceisalwayshopedtoachieve.Soaccordingtodifferentaudience,languageappliedisdifferent.
Whatconstitutesafemaleandamaleidentity,accordingtoadvertising?Table1,basedonthelanguageofadvertising(TorbenVestergaard&KimSchrder,1981:74),givesthecommodityprofileoftwogender-identifiedmagazines:WomenandPlayboyandalsoprovidesthedistributionofthedifferenttypesofadvertisements.
Table1Distributionofthreetypesofadvertisements
Percentageofads
Women(%)Playboy(%)
Daily
Consumer
Goods
Hygiene103
Beauty181
Clothes1214
Food,Detergents31-
Tobacco815
Beer,Spirits-25
Leisure-3
Technical
Equipment
Vehicle-27
Radio,hi-fi-4
Computer-7
ServiceInsurance,banking2-
Others191
Itcanbeseenfromtable1thatthehygiene,beauty,foodanddetergentsadsaredominantinthewomen’smagazineswhiletechnicalequipmentadsprevailinmen’smagazines.Thereasonisthatwomenarepotentialpurchasersofdailyconsumergoodswhilemenarepotentialpurchasersoftechnicalequipment.Soadvertisinglanguagetriestowinitsaudiencesbynoticingaudiences’genderidentity.
Inaddition,sincethesubjectsinvolvedinadvertisementsvaryfromsimpletocomplex,sharedknowledgebytheaddresser(ads)andaddressee(theaudience)varies.Forexample,knowledgeoftechnicalequipment,sometimesdemandshigheducationalbackgroundorspecialinterestsinacertainfield.Toconveydifferentknowledgeclearly,advertisementsdon’talwaysspeakinthesameway.Inthefollowingsection,wewillmakeacomparativestudyofthreepointsinordertofinddifferencesinthechoiceofwordsinthreetypesofadvertisements:theselectionofadjectives,theuseofcompoundwordsandtheuseofpronouns.
2.3.2Selectionofadjectives
Adjectives,asemotiveandexcitingwords,areusedtoenhancethefactsofacertainproductorservice.Inthestudyoftheselectionofadjectives,wehavefirstdividedadjectivesintotwogroups:descriptiveadjectivesandevaluativeadjectives.Theformerisusedinobjectivedescriptionandthelattergivetheadvertiser’ssubjectivecomments.Thenwehavelistedthosefrequentlyuseddescriptiveadjectivesandevaluativeadjectivesindailyconsumergoodsadsandtechnicalequipmentads,andwesurprisinglyhavediscovereddescriptiveadjectivesdifferfromeachotherintwokindsofadvertisements.
Table2Comparisonoffrequently-usedadjectives
indailyconsumergoodsadsandtechnicalequipmentads
DescriptiveadjectivesEvaluativeadjectives
Daily
Consumer
Goods
Ads
radiant,shiny,dazzling,gold
soft,smooth
fresh
creamy,crispy
clean
easy,convenient
rich,effective,crucial
healthy,fast
valuable,flew
essential
good/better/best
magic
Technical
Equipment
Ads
audible,visible
high-volume,full-colour,
high-speed
magnetic,sharp
invisible,multiple
flexible,versatile
Table2showsthatdescriptiveadjectivesindailyconsumergoodsadssuchasfresh,crispy,andsoft,tendtoconveythesenseofsight,touch,andtaste.Thetemptationarousedbythisvividdescriptionofaproductishardtoresistespeciallyforwomenwhotendtobemovedbypleasantsenses;comparedwithmen,womenareinclinedtothinkintermsofimagesandperceivethroughsenses.However,men,thetargetaudienceoftechnicalequipment,aregoodatrationalthinking.Menarenotcontrolledbysenses.Onthecontrary,theproduct’sinteriorqualityandfunctioniswhattheypayattentionto.Sothedescriptiveadjectivesusedintechnicalequipmentadsaretheonesconveyinginformationoftheproduct,suchas
audible,visible,high-volume,high-speed,etc.
2.3.3Compoundwords
poundadjectivesareoftenseeninadvertisements.Inthepresentstudy,wefoundcompoundwordsturnupwithvaryingproportionsinthreetypesofadvertisements.
Compound-
usedAds
Total
Ads
Percentage
DailyConsumerGoods52025%
TechnicalEquipment132065%
Service72035%
Obviously,compoundwordsturnupin65%technicalequipmentads,40percentagepointshigherthanthatofdailyconsumergoodsads;30percentagepointshigherthanserviceads.
Compoundwordsintechnicalequipmentads,areusuallycombinedtogiveanexactdescriptionofacertainfeatureoracertainfunctionsuchashigh-volume,full-color,multi-functional,non-stop,water-cooled.Oftennumbersareemployedinfrontofthehyphen,whichisseldomseeninotheradvertisements,suchas64-bit,24-valve,4-wheel,255-horsepower.
Thisdifferencecanbeaccountedforintermsofthedifferentcomplexitiesofthegoods.Incomparisonwithdailyconsumergoodsandservices,technicalequipmentismuchmorecomplicatedinfunctionandstructure.Itisjusttheadvantageousfunctionornewlydesignedstructurethattheadvertiserwantstohighlightintechnicalequipmentads.Thus,theadvertiseremploys,evencoins,somanycompoundwordsthattheycanmaketheintroductionofcomplicatedtechnicalequipmentbriefandprecise.Grammatically,compoundwordshelptoavoidusingclause,whichenhancethereadabilityofadvertisements.
2.3.4Useofpronouns
Pronounsofthefirstandsecondperson:we,Iandyououtnumbertheotherpronounsinadvertisements.Itisbecausethatyou,weandIhelpcreateafriend-likeintimateatmospheretomoveandpersuadetheaudience.Advertisementswithlotsofpronounsofthefirstandsecondpersonarecalledgossipadvertisements.Here,gossiphasnottheleastderogativemeaning.ItoriginatesfromoldEnglishgodsib,meaningfriendlychatsbetweenwomen.Advertisementsthatgoliketalkingwithfriendscloselylinktheadvertisementandtheaudience.Theaudiencewilleasilyacceptaproduct,aserviceoranideaasifagoodfriendrecommendedthem.
Thoughpronounsofthefirstandsecondpersonarepopularinadvertisements,therearesomedifferencesintheuseofthesepronounsinthethreekindsofadvertisements.Thefirstpersonwealmostneveroccursindailyconsumergoodsadsandtechnicalequipmentads,whereasweisusedinalmost80%theserviceadsinthecorpus.Thefollowingaresomeexamples.
Whatcanwedoforyou?
SocomeonandjoinusaswecelebrateMillenniaManiaSingapore.
…,wehelpourneighborsfindthebestwaystogivetotheirfavoritecharities
We’restrongerthanever.
…
Therearetwofactorstoexplainthephenomenon.First,indailyconsumergoodsadsandtechnicalequipmentads,aproductisthefocusofinformation.Whentheproductneedstobementioned,“it”isused,andinmostcases,thebrandnameisused,evenrepeatedtoimpressthereaders.However,inserviceads,serviceisactuallytheproduct.Sinceserviceisintangible
wecanberegardedasthereplacementoftheservice.Second,itismorenecessaryforserviceadstocreateafriend-likeatmosphere,becausewinningtrustisthefirstthingserviceadswanttodo.
3.Syntacticalfeatures
3.1Similarities
Thepurposeofalladvertisingistofamiliarizeconsumerswithorremindthemofthebenefitsofparticularproductsinthehopeofincreasingsales,andthetechniquesusedbyadvertisersdonotvarymarkedly.Anadvertisementisoftenmerelyglimpsedinpassingandso,tobeeffective,itsmessagemustbecolorful,legible,understandableandmemorable.Therulesgoverningthelanguageofadvertisingaresimilar.WehavesummarizedthelexicalfeaturesofEnglishadvertisements.Ifwordsareleavesofatree,andsentencesbranches;thebranchesmustalsopossesstheirsimilarities.
First,lengthofasentenceinadvertisingisusuallyshort.Asentenceindailyconsumergoodsadshas10.3wordsonaverage;intechnicalequipmentads,11.8words;inserviceads,12.3words.
Second,astosentencestructure,paredwithcomplexsentences,simplesentencesaremoreunderstandableandforceful.Ellipticalsentencesareactuallyincompleteinstructurebutcompleteinmeaning.Theadoptionofellipticalsentencescansparemoreprintspace,andtakelesstimeforreaderstofinishreading.Inaddition,agroupofsentencefragmentsmaygainspecialadvertisingeffectiveness.Letuscomparethefollowingtwoadvertisements.
a.Baked.Drenched.Testedtotheextreme.AMotorolacellularphone…
b.TheMotorolacellularphonearebakedanddrenchedtoextreme.
Obviously,byusingellipticalstructure,sentenceaisfarmorebrief,eye-catchingandforcefulthansentenceb.What’smore,itconveysattitudesthatsentenceblacks.Sentenceaimpliesakindofappreciationforthephone,bysplittingthesentenceintoseveralfragmentsandrearrangingitswordorder.Thereforeskillfularrangementofellipticalsentencesmayaddcolortoasentence.
Third,astosentencepatterns,interrogativesentencesandimperativesentencesareheavilyusedinEnglishadvertisements.Imperativesentencesareshort,encouragingandforceful.Theyareusedtoarouseaudiences’wantsorencouragethemtobuysomething.Forinstance:
Entersomethingmagical.(Oldsmobile)
Feelthecleanallday.(ALMAY)
Byeone.(Hondamotor)
…
Intheexplanationofthehighfrequencyoftheuseofinterrogativesentences,LinguistG.N.Leech(方薇,1997:77)discussestwomainfunctionsofinterrogativesentences.Viewingfromtheangleofpsychology,interrogativesentencesdividedtheprocessofinformationreceivingintotwophasesbyfirstraisingaquestionandthenansweringit.Thusitturnsthepassivereceivingintoactiveunderstanding.Fromthelinguisticangle,interrogativesentencesdecreasethegrammaticaldifficulty,becausetheyareusuallyshortinadvertisements.Takethefollowinginterrogativesentenceasanexample:ifitisaskedtocondensetoonesentence,thecondensedonewillbecomplexanddull.
What’sinWoman’sRealmthisweek?Awonderfulbeautyoffersforyou.
There’sawonderfulbeautyofferforyouinWomen’sRealmthisweek.
Fourth,thepassivevoiceisusuallyavoidedbecausethepassivevoicegivestheaudienceanindirectandunnaturalfeeling.Indailycommunication,passivevoiceisseldomused;soisinadvertisements.Presenttenseprevailsinmostadvertisementsbecausepresenttenseimpliesauniversaltimelessness.Ontherareoccasionswherethepasttenseandthepresentperfecttenseisused,itstressesthelongtraditionsassociatedwithaproduct,suchas“We’vetakenourwhiskyinmanyways,butalwaysseriously”;oremphasizesitsreliability,suchas“We’vesolvedalong-standingproblem,”;ormakesanappealtoauthority,suchas“Eightoutoftenownerssaidtheircatspreferredit.”
3.2Differences
3.2.1Headline
ThetermHeadlinereferstothesentencesintheleadingpositionoftheadvertisement—thewordsthatwillbereadfirstorthatarepositionedtodrawthemostattention.Therefore,headlinesareusuallysetinlargertypethanotherportionsoftheadvertisement.Research(CoutlandL.Bovee&WilliamF.Arens,1992:294)hasshownthat,onaverage,threetofivetimesasmanypeoplereadtheheadlineasreadthebodycopy.Therefore,iftheadvertiserhasn’tdonesomesellingintheheadline,hehaswastedthegreatestpercentofhismoney.Soitmightbesuggestedthatadvertisersshouldnotbeafraidoflongheadlines.
Aheadlinehasnumerousfunctions.Firstofall,theheadlinemustattractattentiontotheadvertisementfast.Itshouldtakeonlyafewsecondstocapturethereader’sattention.Otherwise,theentiremessagemaybelost.Aheadlinealsoselectsthereader,thatis,ittellswhethertheadvertisement’ssubjectmatterintereststhereader.Theideaistoengageandinvolvethereader,suggestingareasontoreadtherestoftheadvertisement.Therefore,theheadlineisthemostimportantinanadvertisement.
Generally,wecanclassifyeffectiveadvertisingheadlinesintofivebasiccategories:benefitheadline,provocativeheadline,news/informationheadline,questionheadline,andcommandheadline.
Benefitheadlinesmakeadirectpromisetothereader.News/informationheadlinesincludemanyofthehow-toheadlinesandheadlinesthatseektogainidentificationfortheirsponsorsbyannouncingsomenewsorprovidingsomepromiseofinformation.Provocativeheadlinesareusedtoprovokethereader’scuriosity.Tolearnmore,thereadermustreadthebodycopy.Aquestionheadlinewillpiquethereader’scuriosityandimaginationbyaskingaquestionthatthereaderisinterestedin.Acommandheadlineordersthereadertodosomething.Itmotivatesthereaderthroughfearoremotionorbecausethereaderunderstandstheinherentcorrectnessofthecommand
3.2.2Comparisonofheadlinesofdifferenttypesofadvertisements
Table4tellswhichtypeofheadlineismostusedinacertaintypeofadvertisements.
Table4Comparisonofheadlinesinthreetypesofadvertisements
Benefit
Headline
News/Infor
headline
Provocative
Headline
Question
Headline
Command
Headline
Daily
Consumer
Goods
15%
25%
15%
40%
5%
Technical
Equipment
10%
30%
30%
25%
5%
Service
35%
10%
40%
10%
5%
Whyquestionheadlinesaremorefrequentlyusedindailyconsumergoodsads?AmericansociolinguistDanielN.Maltz(方薇,1997:144)concludedthroughstudythatwomentendtoaskquestions.Theyhaveubiquitouscuriosity.Sothewomen-targetingads,dailyconsumergoodsads,cleverlyemployquestionheadlinestocatertowomen’scuriosity.Thequestioncanbewhatwomencare,suchas“Whichofthesecontinentalquiltpatternswillsuityourbedroombest?”;orwhatwomenseldomthinkof,suchas“Heartheoneaboutthecomedianwhoneverdrankmilk?”.Nomatterwhatkindofquestion,itwillarousewomen’sinteresteffectively.
Accordingtothecomparison,informationheadlinesaremostpopularintechnicalequipmentadvertisements.Forexample:
Here’sthefilmlessversion.
It’saboutexchanginginformationeasilywithpeopleyoutrust.
ThemuscularV6givestheGrandVitaraundeniableappeal.
…
Technicalequipmentistheresultofscienceandhightechnology.Unknowninformationinanadvertisementaccountsforalargeproportion.Unlikedailyconsumergoodsads,nointroductionofaproductisnecessaryinheadline,becausewearesofamiliarwiththesedailyusedproductsthatalmostallinformationbecomesgiveninformation.Therefore,headlinesoftechnicalequipmentadsmeantoattractreadersbydisplayingtheunknowninformationofaproduct.
However,serviceadstendtogivepromiseinheadlinetoattractreaders.Forexample:
Whereveryouare,wheneveryouneedus,theAllianzGroupisalwaysthereforyou.
Therightbankcanmakeallthedifference.
Cancerpatientsflyfreeonthewingsofangles.
…
Banks,insurancecompanies,publicutilitiesandairlinespreferusingbenefitheadlinestoemphasizewhattheycandotocustomers.Consumergoodsandtechnicalequipmentcanpresentthemselvesinbeautifulpictures.However,serviceadsarenotabletopresenttheir“product”inprintexceptlanguage.So,theyhavetohighlighttheir“product”intheheadline.
4.Discoursefeatures
4.1BodyCopyofanAdvertisement
Ingeneral,awrittenadvertisementconsistsoffiveparts:headline,bodycopy,slogan,illustrationandtrademarkamongwhichheadline,bodycopyandsloganarethemainparts.Headlineplaysaroleincatchingattentionfromreaders;slogancanbeusedasadevicetocreateacorporateimageandacommonpracticetoconcludeadvertisement.
Inthissectionwewilldiscussthebodycopyasadiscoursecomponent.Theadvertisertellsthecompletesalesstoryinthebodycopy.Setinsmallertypethanheadlinesorsubheads,thebodycopyisalogicalcontinuationoftheheadlineandsubheads.Itisalsowherethesaleisclosed.Thebodycopyshouldrelatetothecampaignappealandtothereader’sself-interest,anditmustexplainhowtheproductorservicebeingadvertisedsatisfiesthecustomer’sneed.Thebodycopymayconcentrateononeorseveralbenefitsastheyrelatespecificallytothetargetaudience.Insomecases,especiallyindailygoodsads,bodycopyisomittedjustbecausereadersknowwhattheyare.
4.2DifferencesinBodyCopys
Copysfallintomanycategories.Somecommontypesofcopysincludestraight-sellcopy,institutionalcopy,narrativecopy,dialogue/monologuecopy.
Inastraight-sellcopy,thetextimmediatelyexplainsordevelopstheheadlineinastraightforwardattempttoselltheproduct.Sincetheproduct’ssalespointsaretickedoffinorderoftheirimportance,straight-sellcopyisparticularlyadvantageousfortechnicalproductsthatmaybedifficulttouseindirect-mailadvertisingandindustrialsituations.Manycameraads,forexample,usethisstraight,factualcopytogetthemessageacross.Thestraight-sellapproachemphasizesthereasonwhytheconsumershouldbuysomething.Forexample:
PickuprightwhereyouleftoffwiththenewC-2000ZOOMfilmlessdigitalcamera.
Youlovedtakingpicturesthen.You’llloveitevenmorenowwiththe2.1megapixelC-2000ZOOM.It’llremindyouofyourfavoritefilmcameraofyesterday,butwithalltheadvantagesOlympusfilmlessphotographyofferstoday.OnlytheC-2000ZOOM,forexample,incorporatesanall-glass,aspherical3xzoomlenssystemfeaturingalargeaperturef2.0lensthat’sexceptionallyfastandbright.Alongwithautomaticormanualfeatureslikeapertureandshutterpriority,spotmetering,exposurecompensation,whitebalanceandISOsettings.Andjustlikeyourfilmcamera,theC-2000ZOOMgrowswithyouwhenyouaddexternalflash,lightingequipment,lensesorfilter.SobringbackoldmemorieswhilecreatingnewoneswiththeC-2000ZOOMfromOlympus--THEWORLDLEADERINFILMANDFILMLESSPHOTOGRAPHY.
Sometimestheadvertiserusestheinstitutionalcopytosellanideaorthemeritsoftheorganizationorserviceratherthansalesfeaturesofaparticularproduct.Ofteninstitutionalcopyisalsonarrativeinbecauseitlendswarmthtotheorganization.Serviceads,suchasadsofbanks,insurancecompanies,publicutilities,andlargemanufacturingconcernsarethemostcommonusersoftheinstitutionalcopy.
Advertisersusethenarrativecopytotellastory.Itoftensetsupaproblemandthencreatesasolutionusingtheparticularsalesfeaturesoftheproductorservice.Itmaythensuggestthattheaudiencesusethesamesolutioniftheyhavethatproblem.Serviceadvertisementsareoftenwritteninthis.Forinstance:
LIFEINSURANCEISN’TFORTHEPEOPLEWHODIE.
IT’SFORTHEPEOPLEWHOLIVE.
“ItbrokemyhearttohearmydaughterDorseysayshewishedherdaddywasstillhere.Butthankstohisforesight,we’llstillhavethethingsheworkedfor”
DorseyHoskins’fatherBryanfeltatinglinginhisarm.Thediagnosis—aninoperablebraintumor.Hediedsixmonthslater,at33,leavinghiswifeDeanalonetoraiseDorseyandhersisterHattie.Fortunately,Bryanboughtlifeinsurancewhenhegotmarried,andagainwhenhisdaughterswereborn.Deaninvestedtheproceedsinherownclothingstore,whichgiveshertheflexibilitytospendmoretimewithherchildren.
Areyouprepared?Withoutinsurance,yourfinancialplanmaybejustasavingsandinvestmentprogramthatdieswhenyoudo.Aninsuranceagentorotherfinancialprofessionalcanhelpyoucreateaplanthatwillcontinuetoprovidefortheonesyoulove.
Byusingadialogue/monologuecopy,theadvertisercanaddthebelievabilitythatthenarrativecopysometimeslacks.Thecharactersportrayedinaprintadvertisementdothesellingintheirownwords,throughatestimonialorquasi-testimonialtechnique,orthroughacomic-strippanel.Allkindsofadscanusethisbodycopy,ifnecessary.Forexample:
WhenIwantaCDdoneright,Idoitmyself.Yeah,thismachinerocks.Itburnsfull-sizeCDsthatsoundtotallyliketheoriginal.ItplaysCDs.RecordsCDtoCDatdoublespeed.Andrecordsoffofjustaboutanysource.LPs.Cassettes.Theradio.It’sevengotatextdisplay.Anyway,nowI’vegotmyowngreatesthitscollection.ThestuffIwanttolistento.I’vegottoadmitit’sgettingbetter.
5.Conclusion
Uptonow,wehaveanalyzedlanguagefeaturesofadsatthreelevels.Linguisticsimilaritiesanalyzedinthispaperandsharedbyallkindsofadsareshownasfollows:
Ⅰ.Lexicalfeatures
a.One-syllableandsimpleverbssuchasgetandmakeareused.
b.Emotiveadjectivesareadoptedtoarousereader’sinterest.
c.Wordsarecarefullychosentomakepunandalliteration.
d.Weaselwords,suchashelpandlike,maketheuseofstrongestlanguagepossibleinadvertisements.
Ⅱ.Syntacticalfeatures
a.Sentencesinadvertisementsareshort.Onaverage,asentenceconsistsof11.8words.
b.Ellipticalsentencesareusedtospareadvertisingcostandatthesametimeimproveadvertisingeffectiveness.
c.Interrogativesentencesandimperativesentencesarecommoninadvertisements
d.Presenttenseprevailsinadstosuggesttimelessness.Andactivevoiceisusedtocatertoaudience’shabitindailytalk.
Ⅲ.Discoursefeatures
Acompleteadvertisementconsistsoffiveparts:Headline,BodyCopy,Slogan,Illustration
andTradeMark.Bodycopyisthekeypart,conveyingproductorserviceinformation.
Whilesummarizingsimilaritiesoflanguagefeaturesofthreekindsofadvertisements,wehavediscussedthedifferencesbetweentheseadsonthefollowingdimensions:
First,inordertoachievethehighestadvertisingeffectiveness,theadvertiserpreciselytargetstheaudiencebytheirsocialstatus,roles,income,educationalbackgroundandgender.Thereforeadvertisinglanguageadjustsitselftogetclosetotargetaudience.
Second,dailyconsumergoods,technicalequipmentandservicearetotallydifferentadvertisingsubjects.Forexample,somewordsintechnicalequipmentadsarecomprehensibleonlytothoseacquaintedwiththatfield.TakeiMACPCasanexample.AllthefeaturesofiMAC,plus:400MHZ,G3processor,slot-loadingDVDdrive,10GBdiskstorage,dual400MbpsFireWireports,andiMovievideoeditingsoftware.Laymenofcomputersmustfeelconfusedbythesedazzlingfiguresandunits.However,inordertomaketheinformationofatechnicalproductclear,somejargonsarenecessary.Thereforedifferentkindofadsspeakdifferentlanguage.
Thestudyhasshownthatthreekindsofadvertisementsinthecorpusrespectivelydemonstratetheirownuniquelanguagefeatures.
Indailyconsumergoodsads,descriptiveadjectivestendtoconveysensesofsight,taste,andtouchinthehopeofsatisfyingwomen''''sappealforbeautyandcomfort.Nojargonisused.Headlinesofdailyconsumergoodsadstendtoaskquestiontoarousetheinterestofaudience,especiallywomen''''s.Thebodycopyseemsnotsoimportantandessentialasthatoftheadvertisementforproductsrequiringhightechnologicalinformation,thusinsomecasesbodycopyisomittedindailyconsumergoodsads.
Intechnicalequipmentads,poundwords,particularlycompoundjargons,arefrequentlyusedtoexactlyintroduceacomplicatedproduct.Headlinesoftechnicalequipmentmeantoattractreadersbytransferringtheunknowninformationofaproduct,sotheyareofteninformation/newsheadlines.
pbl教學教學案例范文第5篇
關鍵詞:PBL教學法細胞工程教學改革
中圖分類號:G64 文獻標識碼:A 文章編號:1674-2060(2016)03-0292-02
PBL(Problem-BasedLearning)是基于構建主義教育理念而發展起來的一種“以問題為基礎”的教學法[1],是1969年Barrows在加拿大McMaster大學創立[2],是近年來國際上受到廣泛重視的一種教學模式。目前,國內外越來越多的學校開展教學改革,將PBL教學法應用在醫學、理工、化學甚至電子、商學、法律等學科領域。與傳統的教育模式相比,PBL教學法強調把學習設置到復雜的、有意義的問題情景中,將抽象的理論知識和實際案例結合起來,鼓勵學生通過自主學習和集體討論、相互協作來分析、解決問題,從而學習到相關的科學知識。在培養學生創造性思維和解決問題能力等方面,PBL教學法具有良好的效果。研究發現,該教學法可全面提高教師教學質量和學生的綜合學習能力[3]。生物技術專業旨在培養有良好的科學素質、較強的創新意識和實踐能力的人才。如何提高學生的綜合學習能力,培養學生創造性思維和解決問題能力一直是備受關注的問題。本文在比較和分析傳統教學法和PBL教學法特點的基礎上,以北師大珠海分校生物技術專業2012級和2013級本科學生為對象,初步探討PBL教學法在細胞工程教學中的應用,為生物技術專業教學改革提供一定的客觀依據。
1研究對象
以北京師范大學珠海分校工程技術學院2012級、2013級生物技術專業4個教學班學生為對象,設置對照組和實驗組,對照組學生為2012級和2013級生物1班學生,共80人,實驗組學生為2012級和2013級生物2班學生共87人。學生入學成績比較無顯著性差異(P>0.05)。
2PBL教學法的實際應用
與傳統的單純教學、復習舊課、講授新課、小結及總結、布置作業的教學形式相比,PBL教學法采用情景教學,將教學過程分為提出問題、分析和建立假設、收集資料、討論及論證假設、總結反思5階段[4]。這個模式類似于目前研究生教育中的Seminar課程的形式,教師的作用重點是進行引導和總結[5]。學生往往需要查看大量的文獻資料,利用課堂整合并學習各種綜合知識、交叉課程。
2.1實際案例的選擇
在充分分析教材《(細胞工程》,安利國主編)的基礎上,結合企業、實驗課程的實踐,選定八個章節制定主體模塊(如“單克隆抗體之生物導彈技術”“、干細胞與組織工程之皮膚美容”“、植物快繁體系的建立之胡蘿卜愈傷組織的誘導”“、傳染與免疫”等),通過問題引導學生課前查閱相關資料,課上討論并根據現象分析原因,提出解決方案。
2.2PBL教學法的實施
1)設置情景,提出問題自由組隊,以5-8人為一個小組,通過閱讀資料,與老師一起提出問題。2)自主學習,收集資料通過教材、參考書、圖書館、互聯網等有針對性進行自學,收集并整理資料。3)分組討論,分析歸納通過資源共享,小組討論,對問題進行解答,并設計實驗提出解決方案。4)總結評價,檢測矯正將解決方案以報告形式向全班學生進行展示,并在實驗教學中應用檢測。
3結果與分析
3.1學生期末考試成績
從表1可以看出,PBL教學法在細胞工程學教學過程中的影響。從學生期末試卷成績可以看出,實驗組和對照組學生期末成績無顯著性差異(P>0.05);但從平均分數可以看出,實驗組學生成績明顯高于對照組。
3.2學生教學反饋
教學改革主要通過兩方面進行教學評價,一方面是學生最終成績,另一方面就是學生的教學評價。通過學生教學質量評價調查,實驗組學生在教學效果、內容的系統性、教學互動、激發學生興趣、引導學生思考問題等幾方面滿意度有了明顯的提高。PBL的教學課堂氣氛十分活躍,改變以往單純聽課的狀態,學生主動參與到課堂的教學中,并化被動為主導,通過討論進行演講展示。以問題帶動思考,在案例中學習理論知識,掌握的更加牢固,并開拓學生視野。學生不僅擴展知識面,更學會多種查找資料的方法,充分提高了獲取各方面信息的能力。通過他人的帶動學習,不會查文獻的同學也無形中逐漸提高了自學能力,更增加學生的團隊協作能力。
4PBL教學法在實際教學中出現的問題
4.1PBL教學案例的選擇
[6]PBL教學法是以問題為基礎“,問題”是整個教學的出發點,學生在教師的指導下,以小組的形式針對問題進行探究,并提出解決方案,進而挖掘問題背后的科學知識[7]。但往往一個問題的解決方案和結果不是單一的,是多樣的,不存在唯一性。且生物技術專業教學案例較少,部分案例知識覆蓋面較窄,不能覆蓋全部的章節內容。
4.2對學生個人能力的要求
由于我國的教學體制一直延用傳統教學方法,主要以老師講授為主。學生的自學能力較弱,查找資料能力差,歸納總結能力有待提高。所以,剛接觸PBL教學模式,學生會很新鮮,對問題創設表現出無從下手,不知所措,課下查找資料也比較盲目,不能把握問題的重點,討論也沒有針對性等等。另外,學生獲取信息、加工和評價信息的能力很差,盲目地找尋,效率很差[4]。因此,PBL教學法對學生個人的自身能力要求很高,教學改革初期,要求老師做好引導和前期指導工作,在平時教學中注重培養學生查閱資料能力、分析歸納能力,以提高學生的綜合素質。
參考文獻
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[2]BARROWSHS．ATaxonomyofProblem-BasedLearningMethods[J].MedicalEducation,1,86,20(6):481-486.
[3]馬良,張宇昊.PBL教學模式在食品毒理學課程中的應用研究[J].西南師范大學學報(自然科學版),2012,37(2):171-174．
[4]丁國芳,楊最素,徐銀峰,等.人體解剖學教學中滲透PBL教學的實踐[J].中國高等醫學教育,2008(11):76—77.
[5]劉燁,魯映青,汪青.PBL教學模式在病理學CPC教學環節中的應用[J].中國高等醫學教育,200,(2):104--106.
[6]范暉,涂惠.PBL教學案例的選擇與開發[J].西北醫學教育,2009,17(5):1000-1002．
